Controversy over the application of current socioecological models to folivorous primates: Colobus vellerosus fits the predictions.

We explore the applicability of the current socio-ecological model to characterize the social structure of Colobus vellerosus, a folivorous primate. The current socio-ecological model predicts that female social relationships should respond in predictable ways to food abundance and distribution and associated competitive regimes. It appears to successfully explain variation in social structure in some primate species; however, recent research indicates that several folivorous or folivore-frugivorous species seem to be exceptions. We present data on social relationships and social structure in two groups of C. vellerosus over 15 months at Boabeng-Fiema, Ghana. As predicted by the model, our results indicate the co-occurrence of 1) low levels of grooming between female C. vellerosus when compared with other species, 2) an absence of female coalitions over food, and 3) female dispersal. Taken together, these traits suggest a "Dispersal-Egalitarian" species. However, our results also indicate female-female affiliation was higher than male-female affiliation, which was more indicative of a "female resident" species. Our data also suggests inter-sexual affiliation varied among groups. This variation in inter-sexual affiliation could be due to variation in the intensity of infanticidal threats between groups. The combination of these social characteristics lead us to conclude that C. vellerosus' social structure is largely congruent with the ecological indicators of food distribution and female competitive regime that we have previously documented, which indicated high quality foods were not monopolizable or usurpable and behavioral evidence of within-group contest competition (i.e. supplantations over food) was rare. But the combination of higher female-female affiliation (compared to male-female) and female dispersal is difficult to explain in light of predictions, unless future work reveals female residency is more predominant than female dispersal in our population. We also discuss reasons why some folivores do not appear to fit the predictions of the current socio-ecological model.